ࡱ> y7 BdbjbjUU M7|7|^E}l|||t```avb $fffffjk<k $ "kj"jkktffXtttklfftkt t~'Kff ~X`emKlJHqKt  Methodology for Assessment of Transport ImpactS of Social Exclusion Manual for Assessing the Impacts of Transport Policy on Social Exclusion Prepared for DG Employment and Social Affairs By The MATISSE Consortium  DG Employment and Social Affairs Preparatory Measures Combating and Preventing Exclusion MATISSE VS//2001/0713 Manual for Assessing the Impacts of Transport Policy on Social Exclusion By Transport & Travel Research (UK) Merseytravel (UK) ISIS (Italy) Rupprecht Consult (Germany) Author(s)The MATISSE ConsortiumQuality ControlPhilip BarhamVersion1.0DateSeptember 2003Last editedSeptember 24th 2003This report has been prepared for TTRs Client in accordance with the terms and conditions of appointment. Transport & Travel Research Ltd cannot accept any responsibility for any use of or reliance on the contents of this report by any third party.  EMBED Word.Document.8 \s  Introduction The MATISSE Project (Methodology for Assessment of Transport ImpactS of Social Exclusion) is a preparatory action funded by the European Commissions Directorate for Employment and Social Affairs. One of the key objectives of the project is to compile, and validate, an evaluation tool that can be used for assessing the impact of transport-related policy interventions on social exclusion. The current document was presented and discussed at a Workshop, attended by invited stakeholders and other experts, in Brussels, on June 12th 2003. The document is intended to be a working manual, for use by professionals whose task it is to evaluate the impact of a transport policy intervention on social exclusion. It is not assumed that the user of the MATISSE Manual has an expertise in either transport issues, or issues related to social exclusion. 2. Social Exclusion The Social Exclusion Agenda The reason for current interest in the issues addressed by the MATISSE Project is the growing realisation across Europe that transport policies in the past have contributed to social exclusion in Europe. This is allied to a recognition that transport policy, properly integrated into mainstream social policy, has the potential to improve social inclusion and cohesion in Europes cities and rural regions. At the European policy level, the basic rights to the freedom of mobility were underlined in the Treaty of Rome; although in this treaty mobility was not viewed in a transport context but in a context of employment and social mobility. The primary root cause of social exclusion is poverty, although the two terms do not refer to the same thing. Whilst the concepts of poverty and unemployment focus on individuals and households, social exclusion can affect whole social, racial and geographical communities, and lead to isolation, or, in extreme circumstances, ghettoisation. The phenomenon essentially refers to a lack of access to the social, cultural, economic and healthcare facilities enjoyed by the rest of society. This document is intended to serve as a practical manual for use by practitioners who are required to assess the impact of a transport policy intervention on social exclusion levels - more in-depth descriptions of the methodological discussions and reasoning underlying this manual appear elsewhere. The manual begins with a step-by-step description of the procedure for the impact evaluation. This is followed by advice on the all-important selection of indictors for this task, with suggestions for which indicators should be used. The Link between Social Exclusion and Transport Transport is a tool for living and working; it provides a level of mobility and accessibility to meet activity requirements. Mobility is seen as a basic freedom and one indicator of the quality of life we experience. One feature of the travel patterns of socially excluded groups is the limited travel horizons of people on low incomes, usually those without access to car travel. There is an increasing demand for transport plans to meet social inclusion targets, and for social policy makers to recognise the important role of transport in maximising peoples life chances. Furthermore, there is growing pressure on the European transport planning profession to make the links between the objectives of local transport plans and local social targets more transparent and accountable. This is particularly important for investment programmes, public transport strategies, pricing policies and sustainable transport initiatives. At the national and European levels, there is also an important link between social inclusion policy and sustainable transport policy. What can be Done to Combat Social Exclusion? Achieving social inclusion in Europe entails providing the means to access basic facilities, employment, education and leisure services. In the short term, this may involve providing better transport services to existing employment centres and other facilities; in the longer term, inclusion can be promoted by more informed land use planning, locating new developments closer to where people live, or in areas with better public transport provision. National Action Plans to combat social exclusion (NAPs/incl.) produced by each EU member state, outlining the issues to be addressed and the strategies devised to address them, provide a means of countering the exclusion of some groups of people, in much the same way as Local Transport Plans (LTPs) can be used in the UK. What is the Role of the MATISSE Project in this Process? Transport issues within the NAPs/incl. are merely implicit, and transport is generally not viewed as a key policy in addressing social exclusion. One of the objectives of the MATISSE project is to emphasise the importance of transport in achieving social inclusion where the NAPs/incl. do not make explicit the link between transport and social policy. The approach of MATISSE is to develop an evaluation framework to assess the current transport needs of socially excluded groups and to identify gaps in transport provision and set targets. The framework will use a system of indicators based on existing data usually available for local urban / transport plans. The purpose of MATISSE is to provide specific guidance to appraise the impacts of alternative policy options on social inclusion/exclusions, but this has to be embedded into a consistent appraisal framework inclusive of all the relevant impacts of a transport scheme. In other words, the MATISSE framework, to provide an effective decision making support, has to be seen as a component of a wider integrated assessment framework. The MATISSE Assessment Framework consists of a seven-step procedure, Definition of the assessment objectivesEstablishment of a partnershipProblem definitionAgreement on the general objectives of the transport policy interventionMeasurement of policy impactDefinition of the set of indicators to be usedMeasurement of changeAppraisal, conclusions and monitoringAssessment of the effects of transport policy on social exclusionOn-going monitoring of the effectiveness of measures 3. Impact evaluation logic Definition of the Assessment Objectives. Establishment of a Partnership. The first step in the process is to establish a partnership of agencies who represent local stakeholders. This is to make the process of evaluation as transparent and accountable as possible. Where there is the likelihood of differences of opinion among the stakeholders, the style of appraisal must provide some opportunity to explore the implications of different perspectives, through sensitivity analyses, different weighting of indicators etc. Even where complete consensus cannot be achieved, the fact that an open and collaborative appraisal has been seen to take place can have a significant influence on stakeholders satisfaction and acceptance levels. Stakeholders who should be involved in the partnership are land use planners, as well as local service providers and agencies that can influence peoples accessibility to goods and services. This includes, in particular, those providing transport for education, health care and social services, those having a role in reducing crime and the fear of crime and those making decisions on the location, timing and delivery of local services. Generally, the main categories of stakeholders can be summarised as: Public authorities: i.e. bodies authorised to issue directives, impose regulations and requirements, for the planning and financing of the transport infrastructure. These include European, national and local governments, government agencies and regional development agencies. Operators: (public or private) that manage transport services, collect information on traffic, exercise control (within the framework of directives and regulations) and set targets for service procurement and safety. Users of public transport: these constitute the basis for transport management and are the last link in the transport chain. They may be regarded collectively (as traffic) or as individuals. Non-users of public transport: these people might be non-users as a result of public transport services being unable to meet their needs, physically inaccessible to them, un affordable, not known to them, unwelcoming or intimidating, from a personal security point of view. Examples in the UK of stakeholders who are likely to be key to the impact evaluation process include Local Education Authorities, Learning and Skills Councils, Jobcentre Plus, Primary Care Trusts, National Health Service Trusts, Crime and Disorder Reduction Partnerships and Local Strategic Partnerships. Input from stakeholders might include advice on: Compiling an inventory of services Priority destinations to which access should be improved or maintained, or on the prioritisation of destinations The relative importance of destinations within the same category (e.g. GPs surgeries, clinics, pharmacies etc.) Acceptable journey times to specific destinations for specific area types, when advising on indicators. It is at this stage that monitoring procedures to be implemented later in the process should be decided upon. Timetables for such activities should be drawn up at this point, with specific targets set. Problem Definition. The formal process of problem definition might have two dimensions to it the geographical definition of the area under consideration, and the identification of the individuals and groups of people who are intended to be the end-beneficiaries of the policy intervention. Geographical definition This might be largely self-evident, if the practitioner charged with performing the assessment has responsibility for a given parish, urban district or neighbourhood. If the assessment exercise is linked to a Local Transport Plan, then it is likely that the area referred to by the NAPs/incl. or LTP will be already delimited by political and/or administrative boundaries. Alternatively, there is a possibility that the transport intervention might be more targeted at benefiting a specific socio-economic or ethnic group which might be concentrated in a particular location of a town or city. In such a case, careful attention will need to be paid to defining, in consultation with stakeholders, the geographical boundaries of the assessment. It will be important when undertaking accessibility planning to give consideration to travel needs and opportunities outside a local authority or LTP area. People near the edge of a county may travel into adjoining counties for services and many authorities include bus routes and rail services for areas just outside the county. Amongst other things, this raises issues of data exchange (can authorities supply data in a form that others can use) and comparability, to which consideration should be given. Defining the end-beneficiaries As well as putting geographical limits on the area under consideration, it is also important to be clear about who the policy intervention is intended to benefit. Whilst it is likely that there will be some global benefits to all members of society, measures to combat social exclusion will be targeted at the needs of those who are most vulnerable; the social groups who are most frequently affected by transport-related social exclusion problems. These usually include children, older people, low income households, single parents, women, disabled people, people from ethnic minority groups etc.. Proper consultation with local groups and organisations comprising the partnership described in 1. will ensure an inclusive process, in which the interests of all members of society are considered. Agreement on the General Objectives of the Transport Intervention. This step in the procedure includes identifying, and agreeing upon, the most relevant needs in the promotion of social inclusion. This need not be an exhaustive process of listing all the possible outcomes or effects of a transport policy intervention. What is important is that, at this stage of the evaluation process, there is a clear understanding of the key objectives of the transport-related measures that have been implemented. This will also involve an understanding of the connection between transport policy and the social objective of combating social exclusion, as well as an identification of targets and desired outcomes. Transport policys direct goal is raising transport service quality, which has many dimensions, such as: Accessibility geographical coverage of public transport routes, service frequency, and lack of physical barriers in vehicles as well as in pedestrian and waiting environments. Reliability regularity and punctuality of service Safety freedom from crime and from fear of crime whilst travelling or waiting at stations/stops Affordability reasonable cost of transport, affordable even for low income households Visibility how far potential users are aware of existing services and travel opportunities. Transport policy targets are usually formulated in terms of the above transport quality measures, which can be used as criteria against which the effectiveness of policy intervention might be evaluated. However, sometimes these targets are formulated in terms of mobility levels concerning the population within a disadvantaged area, or in terms of mobility opportunities to special facilities/activities these might include mobility to employment, to shopping, or to health care facilities. In such a case, the policy might be referred to as a mobility improving policy. It is also possible that the transport policy target might be formulated in terms of social inclusion / exclusion, i.e. in terms of the policy core objective, whereas causal relationships between social inclusion, individual mobility and transport measures are taken for granted. Regardless of how the actual policy is named by its sponsors, it is important that the evaluation must not confuse policy objectives, which are considered to belong to the social exclusion / inclusion domain, and policy instruments which, in the case of the current project, refer to transport and land use measures. In MATISSE, the objective is to evaluate policies in terms of their efficacy in reaching social inclusion objectives, whereas transport quality might be considered to be an instrument through which social objectives are to be achieved. It is useful to review the eight core issues that the European Commission has defined for its five-year social inclusion programme: To develop an inclusive labour market and promote employment as a right. To guarantee adequate income and resources for a decent standard of living. To tackle educational disadvantage. To preserve family solidarity, protecting childrens rights. To ensure reasonable accommodation. To guarantee equal access to high quality public services. To improve service delivery, closely matching citizens needs. To regenerate areas of multiple deprivation. It is clear that accessibility (to goods, services, rights, social contacts etc.) is at the core of nearly all of these issues, and that transport can play an important role as an enabler. The evaluator should be careful not to confuse mobility with accessibility, although both are important to us. These two terms are often used together in transport plans but without a clear distinction. Mobility is an attribute of individuals or groups of individuals accessibility refers to the services and facilities that people want to access. Accessibility might be improved by relocation of services and facilities so that they are more readily available to the people for whom they are intended, or by making them mobile, so that facilities are actually taken to the community, or by introducing measures to make facilities more affordable. Improvements in accessibility might be long-term for instance, those arising from financial incentives for new developments to be sited in certain locations. In other words, a community might experience poor mobility, in the sense that roads and other communication channels are poor, inadequate or congested, whilst at the same time having good accessibility to all the goods and services desired. Conversely, a community might be highly mobile, but poor availability of goods and services, or insufficient thought given to their location, might cause them to be relatively inaccessible. Similar remarks may be made about the relationship between mobility levels and access to employment opportunities. Transport is often a significant factor in increasing or limiting peoples opportunities to take, and, just as importantly, retain employment, or to access services and facilities, especially since society has become increasingly oriented around the car. One consequence of this is that average distances to job places, learning, health care centres and shops have increased. This has put people who are without a car, or who have mobility difficulties - i.e. poorer, older people, and people with children, and who are disabled etc. - in a disadvantaged situation. For example, a lone parent may be unable to take up employment because of travel costs or because of complicated travel patterns needed to accommodate childcare arrangements and getting to work. This might seriously undermine his or her capacity to hold down a job, so limiting his or her prospects of building a career, with all the implications for increasing financial resources and stability beyond the short-term. The inability to retain a job for any length of time, because of uncertainty about being able to obtain transport to work, might prevent people in this predicament from progressing beyond the lowest pay-scale levels. Furthermore, a history of spending little time in a number of jobs will limit the attractiveness of a person to a prospective employer, leading to an increased likelihood of unemployment. People with a low income may not be able to afford the cost of motoring, and they may also be forced to restrict their use of public transport because of the cost of fares. Older or disabled persons may be unable to access necessary public services, like health care, training or entertainment, as often as they would like, because of the discouragement of busy roads, a lack of accessible crossings, unsafe travelling conditions and waiting environments, physical barriers in the pedestrian environment, and so on. Measurement of Policy Impact Definition of the Set of Indicators to be Used. There is no shortage of lists of indicators that are available in the public domain, and some of these have been used as illustrations in this section. In the current context, the most appropriate categories of indicator relate to transport quality, mobility of the local population, the business attractiveness of the area and social exclusion. Indicators are quantitative / qualitative measurements of the expected/real life impacts of a policy and represent the measures of its effectiveness. Of the four types of indicator mentioned above, the two key categories to be used in an evaluation of this type are those measuring personal mobility of individuals, and those measuring the business attractiveness of an area. The comparison of mobility indicators before and after policy implementation indicates whether changes in transport quality induced changes in mobility (provided that no other factors affected mobility levels in parallel to transport quality measures). Similarly, the comparison of business attractiveness indicators before and after policy intervention shows whether improved transport induced desired changes in business attractiveness of the area (again, provided that no factors other than transport quality measures affected business attractiveness). One important question that should be answered before the selection of indicators is the following: within which time horizon are changes in different aspects (dimensions) of social exclusion likely to respond to transport policy interventions? Also, which of the dimensions of social exclusion are likely to change within the time horizon that the planned evaluation may cover? There are some components of social exclusion which might change relatively quickly following changes in mobility: these are, for example, levels of participation and consumption, since people move to satisfy certain needs, to reach shops, medical care centres, entertainment, to meet people, get information, apply for a job etc. Therefore, improving connections to a hospital will soon imply, not only increased mobility, but also increased numbers of medical appointments made by members of the population in question (in the zone in which connections have been improved). In order to demonstrate that the increased frequency of health care appointments has improved the health status of the population, it is, of course, necessary to have much more time. It is also clear that the effect of transport improvement for such essential components of social inclusion as education levels and employment also require more time in which to be demonstrable, as people must move to attend training, to attend job interviews, to travel to work etc. It is, however, possible to identify the effects of transport improvements on the members of a particular interest group, e.g. job seekers, in their attendance at interviews and training courses etc., but more time is required for individuals to secure a job and improve their socio-economic status these effects may not be observed for, maybe, one or two years. Indicators should be selected according to whether they are likely to change within the time horizon of the NAPs/incl. or LTP. For example, employment levels in an area might be affected by both transport links and educational and skill levels among the local population the impacts of a transport policy intervention might be felt almost immediately, whilst the impact of improving education levels will take much longer to take effect. In other words, measuring the short-term changes in the mobility levels of the local population (particularly of certain groups) might be a better indication of the impacts of a policy intervention than trying to measure changes in health and employment etc. (which might be assumed to follow as a consequence). In this case, mobility might be used as a proxy variable to represent contributions to the general well-being of an area or local population, especially given that variables such as employment, mental health, crime levels etc. might not have changed, or might not respond to the policy intervention, within the time horizon being considered. Measures of the impact of transport schemes may fall into one of three categories: Monetary values - used where costs or savings are in market prices. Changes in quantities - e.g. the number of people or properties living within a certain distance, or time, of a bus service. Qualitative or descriptive measures perhaps using a semantic scale describing peoples attitudes and perceptions of the attractiveness of a pedestrian route or public transport service etc. Before discussing in detail the specific social exclusion / inclusion impacts of transport policies, it is useful to point out a general principle that indicators must relate to a specific hierarchy of objectives and sub-objectives. They should be outcome indicators, measuring the level of goal achievement with respect to a sub-objective. Care should be exercised when using some indicators, such as modal split, average speed etc.; this is because they are process instead of outcome or goal achievement indicators. It is important to distinguish between outputs, outcomes and impacts. An output might be exemplified by a change to a transport service, or the introduction of a new service. The impact of this change might be an increase in bus usage in an area, or among a socio-economic group of people. Only the associated improvement in employment levels, or a reduction in the number of missed hospital appointments, for example, can be described as a true outcome in the context of social exclusion. For example, under the heading employment there may be specific outputs such as provision of an incentive scheme, or assistance with travel for job seekers, at two lcoations. One impact might be the uptake of such offers by, say, 1,700 long-term unemployed people per annum, with the outcome being a 2.3% fall in persons unemployed for more than 12 months in a given area. Because of the multidimensional nature of the concept of social exclusion, and the fact that several components can be observed, on different time scales and in relation to the process, the output or the outcome of a policy intervention, it is preferable to select, for the impact assessment exercise, those components that are relatively sensitive, i.e. quickly changeable, and easily measurable, expecting that other components will not change until later on. It is important to select indicators that are both readily usable and change within an appropriate time horizon. The evaluator should not lose sight of the fact that what is required is a set of reliable and representative indicators of change no attempt is to be made to describe all of the changes that take place as a result of a policy intervention. Indicators selected as a measure of accessibility to services and facilities that provide opportunities to satisfy basic needs, such as employment, education, leisure, cultural and health care needs, might include: The proportion of important facilities and services (hospitals, schools of various levels, universities, retail centres, cinemas, city parks, recreation areas, major centres of employment) within a certain distance / walking time from rail, bus or metro stops. The proportion of households within a certain distance / walking time from rail or bus or metro stops. These are examples of indicators which can be measured using quantitative mapping techniques. In particular, quantitative monitoring might be achieved by Accessibility Planning methods these might include GIS (Geographic Information System) mapping techniques. The Cabinet Office of the UKs Social Exclusion Unit (SEU), during its recent study on transport, identified the need for authorities to incorporate more systematic assessments of accessibility. This included the need to form a picture of existing activity within each study area, and to identify the key organisations and agencies that have an influence on the accessibility of facilities and services at the local level. In this context, an appropriate set of quantitative land use and accessibility indicators can be defined, and applied to monitor land use development as well as specific social exclusion phenomena. The practice of planning for accessibility can create benefits by expanding choices and reducing the need to drive. For example, a city may adopt policies to encourage small-scale retail development in residential areas, thereby bringing shops within walking distance, or a city might operate a bus route that links residential areas to commercial areas, or a city might provide access to its services via the Internet and eliminate the need for a trip to city hall altogether. Instead of being forced to deal with increasingly pervasive traffic, residents can then choose to participate in needed and desired activities without driving. But there is no guarantee that planning for accessibility alone will actually reduce driving even if it succeeds in reducing the need to drive. Evidence from past and recent studies confirm the Zahavi conjecture that the time daily devoted to travel remains more or less stable, in different contexts and different times. As a consequence, what could more directly help to reduce the total amount of vehicle travel are accessibility strategies combined with strategies to limit mobility. While strategies to enhance accessibility may lead to changes in behaviour by improving the alternatives to driving, strategies to limit mobility may lead to changes in behaviour by reducing the utility of driving (this is often done through physical barriers to driving, such as car-restricted zones, and/or pricing strategies, including fuel taxes, parking fees and road pricing). Accessibility-enhancing and mobility-limiting strategies have together more potential to change behaviour than either approach on its own. Therefore, besides accessibility planning and the related indicators, it is important to consider also indicators of mobility such as, Number of trips by public transport from / to the zone of interest each day. Number of trips made by members of groups of special interest (e.g. older people, students, job seekers, disabled persons, low income households). Number of journeys per inhabitant (daily, weekly, monthly). Gap between the number of trips made by people in the poorer socio-economic group and the average. Medium length of various journeys (school, work) made by various groups of people Satisfaction with existing mobility opportunities, self-evaluation of mobility needs satisfaction. The MATISSE approach requires the monitoring of accessibility and mobility planning indicators for specific categories of vulnerable people. In particular, an assessment of accessibility to services via local public transport networks should include pedestrian and cycle routes. It should also consider the perceptions, expectations and aspirations of local communities in relation to their travel horizons, in both rural and urban areas. The latter set of objectives might be achieved through surveys and focus groups; such consultation might be particularly effective when conducted with members of specific population groups, especially those in deprived areas, or where accessibility is known to pose problems. The information sought might include, for example, the distance that individuals are willing to travel to particular destination types, and how this willingness varies according to socio-economic circumstances, age and mobility etc. Willingness to wait for a service at a bus stop or interchange will also vary between individuals and population groups, and will also depend on the time of day etc. Indicators of the attractiveness of an area for businesses might include: Number of enterprises (number of job places offered) in the area Number of various service delivery points, such as health care delivery facilities (hospitals and others), schools of various levels, cinemas and other entertainment providing institutions, recreation parks etc. Living conditions, health and the satisfaction of cultural and social needs, being determined to a large degree by employment and education status, are further indicators of social exclusion levels; relevant indicators might include, Indicators of health: life expectancy at birth, self-perceived health status, frequency of health care control visits recommended, drug-dependent persons etc. Housing and living conditions: number of rooms per person, dwellings with bathroom, number of homeless people in the zone. Levels of consumption of certain goods, and cultural facilities. Levels of participation, membership in clubs and associations, social contacts etc. Satisfaction with life, feeling fulfilled, having plans for the future, as opposed to feeling lonely, and hopeless etc. these are subjective components of the social inclusion / exclusion phenomenon. They are very important: people actually live in the world as they perceive it, and lack of self-confidence and pessimism discourage efforts to improve ones conditions, thus maintaining a negative status quo. There are many dimensions of this psychological side of social exclusion; some can only be properly assessed by personal interviews with individuals, or by a formal consultation exercise, which might involve the holding of focus groups, panel groups and other means of collecting qualitative information. There are, however, some indicators that can be used as proxies, e.g. suicide rates, mental health figures etc. Subjective measures are very important in capturing information on perceived mobility opportunities, which will not always be the same as those objective measures often, some time must pass before people realise that something has changed (new bus routes connecting the area with the city centre, reduction of fares for some trips, special buses for shopping centres or for hospitals, improved accessibility of buses, and so on). Actually, the feeling of being excluded is very much part of social exclusion itself; people who feel hopeless and isolated abstain from actions which would improve their situation. Measurement of satisfaction with transport should form an important part of policy impact monitoring. A list of some specific indicators that might be used appears in Table 1. Table 1: Direct and indirect indicators that might be used for evaluating impacts on social exclusion IndicatorDescriptionType of ImpactAccess to Public Transport SystemThis measures the extent to which a scheme or policy influences the proportion of non-car owners who live in proximity to a public transport service. In practice, it can be measured with the data usually available from local transport and/or land use plans, giving the total population living within a max. distance (e.g. 500 metres) from public transport stops. Non-car owners can be computed using average car ownership rates, possibly detailed by zones.DirectCommunity SeveranceCommunity severance describes the impact of transport infrastructure and high traffic flows on pedestrian movements in a community. Impacts are measured on a qualitative scale taking into account both the numbers of people affected and the extent to which people are deterred from making their preferred pedestrian trips. The same concept can be applied with regard to cycling.DirectImproved SecurityThis is mainly of relevance to public transport users perception of personal security for improved facilities at stations and bus stops, measured on a qualitative scale and/or with the help of customer surveys. A range of indicators of good, moderate and poor provision of security (e.g. quality of lighting, levels of formal and informal surveillance) may be used to rank a project.DirectAffordabilitySome people cannot afford personal or public transport to participate in the same activities or have the same choices as households with higher incomes. Low-income households that do have a car spend nearly a quarter of their weekly household expenditure on mobility. Affordability of car travel can be enhanced directly, reducing the fixed cost of insurance through pay-as-you-drive vehicle insurance, or indirectly, encouraging car clubs and community car schemes which provide cost effective access to a car for infrequent drivers. Affordability of public transport is enhanced through fare reduction for selected groups (e.g. pupils, older people). Affordability of transport can also be improved by providing subsidised bus routes for specific purposes, such as those offered by employers, schools, municipalities (e.g. in Italy, school buses), or the distribution of travel vouchers which allow flexibility between different modes of transport. An outcome indicator could be weekly/monthly household expenditure on mobility, by income class, although this is rather demanding in terms of data (detailed household surveys are needed)DirectImproved ReliabilityPunctuality and regularity of transport services are important factors to ensure a regular usage of public transport. Where public transport is separated from car traffic as for rail, tramways or dedicated bus lanes reliability may be more easily controlled, with direct sample measures of punctuality at public transport stops. However, when the public transport services use the road network, reliability can be affected by congestion. In this case, impacts of projects dealing with congestion etc are more easily measured on a qualitative scale. Decision-makers are provided with information as to whether a scheme is likely to contribute significantly, slightly or not at all to improved reliability. More advanced approaches include the development of money values for changes in reliability, using studies of transport users, the calculation of the value of reducing the standard deviation around expected journey times, and assessments of how additional capacity on roads or rail networks reduces travel time variability.DirectJourney ambienceJourney ambience is concerned with such aspects of the trip as the quality of public transport vehicles, comfort provided at public transport stops, quality of transport interchange facilities (e.g. park & ride, bike & drive) etc. Those responsible for carrying out the appraisal are required to show whether the impact is slight, moderate or severe and whether the direction of change is beneficial or detrimental. DirectPhysical fitnessThis is concerned with the potential of transport schemes to promote physical fitness and healthy lifestyles by encouraging walking and cycling through improvements in facilities dedicated to these modes.DirectOption valueThis usually relates to the provision of rail or other public transport services which people value even if they do not use them. Values based on stated preference studies have been derived for specific rail links and these can be adjusted for other schemes. Another option is to look at the change of real estate variables, such as land prices, housing values or rents, which are sensitive to relevant changes of accessibility. Alternatively, a qualitative scale may be used.IndirectRegenerationThe contribution of transport schemes to local or regional economic regeneration is an area which is currently being examined with the aim of linking transport improvements with estimates of net jobs created. A simple assessment may note whether a scheme serves a location targeted for general regeneration policies, and whether consent for building factories and offices is conditional on the realisation of the transport scheme (e.g. public transport oriented schemes). More complicated assessment schemes can be developed, aiming to measure the net employment and business turnover in the regeneration target area over the medium- to long-term, but apart from being demanding in terms of data these approaches will hardly deliver any knowledge on the specific contribution of public transport to the successful outcome (if any) of the regeneration process. Indeed, the major challenge is to establish the extent to which it is the transport policy intervention that was the catalyst for change, as opposed to other factors (e.g. government incentives creating employment opportunities, for attracting new business etc.). Indirect Employment status is a central component of social exclusion. Unemployment or low participation in the labour market often results in low income, low social status and deprivation of the most basic personal and social needs, leading ultimately to isolation. Some basic employment-related indicators of social exclusion are, Employment rate. Long-term unemployment rate. % of low paid workers. Persistence of low income. Unemployment, especially long-term unemployment, mostly concerns persons with a low education level. Having access to mainstream or special school transport services is an important factor to ensure equitable access to learning opportunities, including extra-curricula after-school activities, vocational training and other forms of education. Education-related indicators of social exclusion are, for example: % of people in continuing education within the 15-30 years old population Illiteracy rate. Rate of early school leavers not in further education and training. Rate of students of secondary and university level education institutions. An example of the development of indicators referring specifically to aspects of employment appears in Table 2. These were developed as part of research carried out by Transport & Travel Research Ltd in the UK. Further examples of indicators, based on work carried out by the MAESTRO Project, and further developed by the CIVITAS-METEOR Project, appear in Appendix 1. The Table in Appendix 2 relates different types of policy measure to potential impact indicators. A further important point is that the selection of indicators should not be done without the participation of stakeholders. It is likely that local stakeholders will be in a position to make recommendations on datasets and local accessibility indicators. For example, in the UK, in the context of employment issues, Jobcentre Plus district managers could provide information on concentrations of job vacancies and unemployed people, along with their assessment of gaps in transport provision affecting access to jobs (e.g. no evening services for shift workers, industrial estates not covered by bus routes etc.). Similarly, Local Education Authorities could contribute data from Transport Pathfinder initiatives. Furthermore, LEAs play a role in encouraging the location of schools, colleges and evening classes in accessible places, providing adult education, and ensuring that learning takes place at convenient times and locations. Learning and Skills Councils might also be able to lend support, having an interest in transport issues in the form of travel to learning for the 19+ age group. LSCs support transport costs for 19+ further education through their Learner Support Funds. Newly introduced Primary Care Trusts (PCTs) in the UK might also be able to provide useful information, since the Directors of Public Health in PCTs are responsible for initiatives for widening and facilitating access to healthy, affordable food. Table 2: Indicators which might be used for the assessment of the effect of a transport policy intervention on employment opportunities ObjectiveIndicatorOutputUnitTo help get unemployed people into work or trainingEmploymentNumber of people employed on schemePeople per annum Disaggregated by age, gender, ethnic originNumber of unemployed people accessing workNumber of unemployed people remaining in work after 4 weeksNumber of unemployed people accessing interviewsNumber of unemployed people accessing trainingNumber of unemployed people increasing ICT skillsTo get unemployed people into sustainable and healthy travel habitsTravel BehaviourModal share of WorkWise scheme users% Modal SplitTo support the local economy by ensuring access to employment sitesAccessPublic transport access to employment sitesHectares employment sites accessible by public transport from key deprived wardsTo support the integration of the transport system with the needs of the JobcentresIntegrationIntegration of service deliveryNumber of outlets offering WorkWise facilitiesAwareness of WorkWiseAwareness levelSatisfaction with WorkWiseSatisfaction levelIncreased ICT skills amongst staffPeople per annum There are several initiatives in the UK that are devoted to the development of indicators and datasets for measuring social exclusion. One of these is a joint Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive / Department for Transport study; another is the RAC Foundation / Department for Transport initiative Civilising Cities. Data on the location of facilities are being gathered by the UK Office for National Statisticss Neighbourhood Statistics project. A reference document providing good practice guidance on the selection of indicators is Choosing the right Fabric: a framework for performance indicators. 5. Measurement of Change When measuring changes in social exclusion levels, the implementation of a policy addressing transport quality might be seen as a stimulus, the effects of which must be identified. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to measure all variables that are hypothesised to change; this must be done before and after policy implementation. A typology of the variables that should be used to measure the effects of a transport policy on social exclusion has been described in section 4. above. Evaluation of the impact of a transport policy on social exclusion might therefore be carried out as follows: Measure changes in the quality of transport (in order to identify the effect of the stimulus, i.e. the policy intervention). Measure changes in travel behaviour i.e. in the mobility of the population in an area (or the mobility of selected groups of people) to ascertain whether better transport quality has been translated into higher mobility levels; these effects are likely to occur relatively quickly. Measure changes in the business attractiveness of the area, i.e. the availability within the area of services and employment opportunities these effects may not occur quickly, since the relocation of facilities takes time. Measure the changes in social exclusion levels. Simply expressed, the measurement of change must provide a means of comparing key parameters, using appropriate indicators, before and after the policy intervention, i.e., Measurement of the level of transport quality, of mobility and business attractiveness and the level of social exclusion, before intervention. Measurement of the level of transport quality, of mobility and business attractiveness and the level of social exclusion, after intervention. In practical terms, this means the collection of accurate baseline data, accompanied by the collection of performance data collected annually as part of the on-going monitoring process. This entails consideration of appropriate benchmarks (e.g. the number of minutes required to access a given facility, or other access criteria) for particular services, for specific population groups and geographic areas. This is to provide a basis for assessing the extent to which accessibility needs are being met, and for monitoring changes in accessibility. An important consideration is agreement on an appropriate definition of accessibility; is it one based on ease of travel, or on the ease of reaching a particular service ? A number of different measures are currently used, e.g. distance / time from home to the local public transport network, total journey time, the proximity of different services etc.. Different accessibility barriers are faced by different types of people, in different geographical areas, and such barriers will differ across different transport modes. When measuring proximity to services and facilities, there are certain standard measurements that can be used (e.g. time or distance to bus stops or bus routes), but allowances should be made for the walking speeds of different types of person, and for hills and other obstacles. Other considerations include: How to represent demand responsive services and other forms of flexible transport. How to reflect transport provided by the service provider or voluntary / community groups. How to deal with journeys with modal and service interchanges. How to allow for different frequencies of service during the day, and at weekends. having standard designs for surveys, especially survey questions. Part of the evaluation might entail the collection of information about specific conditions or events, both before and after a policy intervention, such as, for example, the number of people who use public transport in a given time period. Data will be needed for a comparison between the baseline situation and the actual outcome observed. There is still, however, the question of whether observed changes can be attributed to the policy intervention; i.e. is there a genuine cause and effect relationship? For example, if there are changes in the use of a given transport service, what part of those changes is attributable to the introduction of, say, CCTV cameras at a bus interchange facility? The comparison of mobility indicators before and after policy implementation only indicates whether changes in transport quality induced changes in mobility if it is assumed, or can be demonstrated, that no other factors affected mobility levels in parallel. Similarly, the comparison of business attractiveness indicators before and after policy intervention only show that improved transport induced desired changes in business attractiveness of the area if no significant factors other than transport quality measures have changed. When carrying out such evaluations, it is important to establish the presence or absence of a causal chain, which should be related to the objectives of the transport intervention. The assessment of accessibility should also investigate barriers to travelling, such as mobility and access problems, fear of crime, affordability, knowledge of services and how to use them etc. Another major set of questions relates to how individuals view the relative attractiveness of destinations; this might be influenced by journey time reliability, perceptions of crime and safety, the cost of travel etc. Concerning accessibility planning and assessment, the UKs SEU recommended that authorities should identify organisations or partnerships that do, or could, play a role in the identification of potential barriers to accessibility to defined destinations for specific groups of people. In particular, it stipulated that early links should be made with land use planners in the pilot areas, and that consideration should be given to how the accessibility planning process could be co-ordinated and developed within or alongside the framework of land use planning procedures. Potential barriers to the successful implementation of accessibility planning could include a lack of appropriate data, skills or staff shortages within local authorities and other key bodies, time or resources pressures, and any other barriers to effective partnership working between local service providers. The SEUs report recommends that, when developing and delivering their Local Transport Plans, authorities have improved information on barriers to accessibility and the areas where accessibility is poorest; and that transport planners and others should work more closely together to consider a wider range of solutions to accessibility problems. The latter might include changes to the location, timing and delivery of services, and measures to reduce crime around transport, in addition to improved mainstream and specialist transport services. The SEU recommends that accessibility planning should include, as a minimum, the following steps, A needs audit, to assess whether people can get to the key services that they need. A resources audit, to assess the existing and potential financial and other resources that are available for tackling accessibility problems at the local level. An action plan which sets out how transport planners, those involved in the location and delivery of other local services, and other relevant local bodies will improve the gaps in accessibility identified by the needs audit. An implementation and monitoring plan. In terms of the assessment of whether people can get to and from key locations, the SEU report refers to centres of employment, health care, educational facilities and food shops, but it is added that this list is not meant to be restrictive or exhaustive, and that the destinations and journey purposes considered should reflect local needs and priorities. As far as possible, this assessment should include considerations such as journey times, cost, safety and reliability. It should be needs-based, and so focus particularly on disadvantaged groups and areas. The report states that the accessibility audit should aim to consider all modes, including car availability, and also aim to ensure that ability of people from a range of backgrounds, depending on age, gender, ethnicity, and mobility level, to access key services. The location of services and fear of crime, are also considered. The analysis should draw as much as possible on information already held by local authorities and other bodies. This might include GIS-based (Geographic Information System) mapping of socio-demographic variations, information and data on deprivation and car availability in relation to public transport routes and the location of services. Furthermore, consultation with local communities, and liaison with frontline professionals and providers of services, including the community transport sector and other existing community networks, will help to ascertain the extent and the nature of accessibility barriers faced by the local community. The second step in accessibility planning should be to identify the existing and potential resources available to improve access, including those other than traditional mainstream transport, along with informal resources such as volunteers' time and physical spaces and facilities. Such resource auditing should involve, Identifying all the existing and potential resources that could contribute to improving accessibility. Assessing how effectively these resources are being used currently, and whether they could be redistributed. Assessing whether costs or benefits may be shared across agencies. The resources that should be considered in a resource audit include spending by the local authority (e.g. on specialist transport such as patient, pupil and social services transport, tendered bus services, any concessionary fares above the statutory minimum, and funding for community transport). The audit could also consider wider resources, such as the potential for greater work with commercial operators, the community transport sector or police, or decisions on opening times by local services. It might also consider buildings or facilities that are easily accessible, and are vacant at certain times, which could be used for more than one purpose. Other important considerations when carrying out such an evaluation of accessibility are Geographic scope (i.e. can the impact of the policy intervention be measured just in the area under consideration, or does it pertain to a wider context ?), and Permanence (i.e. what is the probability that the observed effect of an intervention will be merely short term ?). Data collection must be based on a system of recording the details of users to a level which does not compromise Data Protection. Four main sources might be employed in the data collection process: instrumentation, observation, surveys and existing records. In defining appropriate variables and specifying sample populations, it is also necessary to consider the accuracy and the cost of this operation compared with the total budget available, in order to make the optimal choice. External conditions can influence the results of the measurements or surveys designed to assess the impact of a transport policy intervention. For example, site characteristics must be carefully considered, because they might influence the local impacts of a scheme, with consequent implications for transferability to other areas. If meaningful comparisons are to be made, it is necessary to define all of these external circumstances, in order to ensure that like with like is being measured, or, at the very least, there should be an awareness that external circumstances might be different, which may lead to the application of weighting factors, for comparison. Monetary evaluation methods provide better insight into the costs and effects of alternatives. An assessment can be made, balancing costs and effects, of, and between, competing alternatives. Monetary methods can be used only when the effects of alternatives can be expressed adequately in monetary terms. Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) and Cost Effectiveness Analysis (CEA) are the most well-known and most widely applied monetary evaluation methods. Other less common monetary methods are Threshold Analysis (developed by planners to evaluate city development plans) and the Shadow Project method (developed to take account of environmental effects in the evaluation of alternatives). In a CBA, the costs and benefits (effects) of alternatives are expressed in monetary terms, and are systematically presented in a balance sheet. Costs can be subtracted from the benefits, the result of which will indicate whether a project should be implemented or not. It might be possible to adapt such a method to the context of social exclusion, since both CBA and CEA may be financial or socio-economic in nature. Financial CBA and CEA measure efficiency from the private point of view (i.e. that of an individual or company). This means that only the costs and benefits for the investor are taken into account. The key question is whether a proposed project would have a sufficient return to justify the investment for a firm, a bank or perhaps an organisation in charge of public utilities. Socio-economic CBA and CEA measure the efficiency of a proposed project from a national point of view; all benefits and costs to society (including third parties) are taken into account. Multi-Criteria Evaluation (MCE), or Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA), methods are designed to provide a flexible way of dealing with qualitative multidimensional effects of projects. These methods attempt to take into consideration the multiple impacts of a project in a balanced manner. Impacts are weighted depending on their relative importance or priority in terms of meeting stated objectives. A Goal Achievement Matrix evaluates alternative options within a matrix format on the basis of how well each achieves a set of pre-determined goals or objectives. The method thus gives a potential decision-maker the opportunity to select, from a series of alternative projects, the most appropriate one for implementation, in terms of each projects rate of success in relation to the pre-defined goals. As this method has evolved from cost benefit methods, the estimation of costs and benefits is central to the method. However, both costs and benefits are defined in terms of goal achievement, rather than in monetary terms. Appraisal, Conclusions and Monitoring Assessment of the Effects of Transport Policy on Social Exclusion. Policy interventions that improve the local economy potentially have a beneficial effect on all sectors of society, although population groups will be affected in different ways therefore, the evaluation should evaluate and measure the impacts of policies with reference to specific groups (geographically, socially, racially etc.). For example, improving transport links might provide employment opportunities in a previously excluded area; the local growth in employment will encourage the growth of services and other facilities, to serve both the local population and commuters coming into the area to work. The impact on social exclusion will be dependent on the extent to which the new services and facilities are available to (previously) socially excluded groups and individuals i.e. Can these people afford them ? Are new services appropriate to their needs? Are they physically able to access the facilities at the times that they want to use them? etc. A further major challenge is to establish the extent to which it is the transport policy intervention that was the catalyst for change, as opposed to other factors (e.g. Government incentives creating employment opportunities for attracting new businesses etc.). This is one example of some genuine chicken & egg dilemmas that are involved here. In many cases, the evaluator will have no choice but to acknowledge that the transport intervention under consideration was one of a number of contributory factors (i.e. one of a package of measures) that will have led to an observed change. 7. On-going Monitoring of the Effectiveness of Measures Setting targets is a formal form of appraisal that does not produce a complete order of strategies, but merely divides policy options into those that meet the targets and those that do not. Targets are defined as the level of indicators that are deemed as being necessary to achieve. For instance, threshold values are forms of target that are commonly applied to environmental indicators, and similar targets might be used for social inclusion. Note that targets relate to and describe the future state that is to be attained. If, however, the transition can clearly be divided into stages, it may be relevant to set intermediate targets. In that case, a distinction should be made between long-term targets and intermediate targets. Where a multi-agency partnership is involved, the monitoring mechanism adopted must draw together the disparate objectives and indicators into a single evaluation process. The mechanism will need to draw upon data held by local agencies, to avoid incurring significant additional costs. Again, it should be emphasised that local stakeholders might be able to assist in identifying means, and appropriate indicators, for measuring and monitoring progress. Appendix 1: Examples of Indicators A1.1. Indicators related to social exclusion of the METEOR Project* adapted from the MAESTRO Project Evaluation Category: SocietyEVALUATION SUB-CATEGORYEVALUATION CATEGORYIMPACTEVALUATION SUB-CATEGORYINDICATORIMPACTDESCRIPTIONINDICATORDATA/UNITSDESCRIPTIONAcceptanceAwarenessavailability of informationdegree to which the various information mechanisms used penetrate society as a whole% of population in receipt of informationUser Acceptance/ User Satisfactionacceptance ratingattitude survey of current and potential utility of measureindex, qualitative, collected, surveysatisfaction level attitude survey of current satisfaction with the measureindex, qualitative, collected, surveyEquityAccessibility PT system access distancedistance to nearest PT stop metres, quantitative, collected, measurementHealthImpacts on Healthhealth impactsno. cases of pollution-related illnessno./yr, quantitative, collected, measurementSecuritySecurityincident levelsstatistics on the no. attacks when using transport optionsno./yr, quantitative, collected, measurementEvaluation Category: TransportQuality of ServiceService Reliabilityaccuracy of timekeepingpercentage of services arriving within given interval of timetable%, quantitative, collected, measurementUser Informationuser information sitesno. of user information sites availableno. of sites, quantitative, collected, measurementSafetyTransport Safetyaccidentsgeneral transport accident no. within the cityno./yr, quantitative, collected, measurementNote: text in grey print indicates relevant indicators identified through the process of measure impact analysis or additional interesting indicators for the relative impact sub-category. * Source: METEOR D2 Assessment Framework and Evaluation Guidelines for Data Collection, March 2003 METEOR is the monitoring and evaluation activity of CIVITAS (Transport and Energy Oriented Radical Strategies for Clean Urban Transport) which uses MAESTRO as a reference for indicator development. A1.2. Draft Indicator Methodology Sheets (CIVITAS-METEOR) Evaluation Category:SocietyEvaluation Sub-category:AcceptanceImpact:AwarenessCore Indicator:Awareness levelDescription of the core indicator:This core indicator assesses the awareness of the inhabitants (and visitors) of a city of new integrated measures by means of a survey. Awareness level: knowledge of the new integrated measures on account of provided information. Context:People are more likely to take advantage of new measures if they are aware of them, i.e. if they are informed about them, and measure performance usually increases with awareness levels. Operators (or other authorities with an interest in an increased awareness of new measures) may initiate information campaigns in order to raise awareness of the new integrated measures among potential users. Information regarding these new measures may be disseminated by means of advertisements, leaflets, posters in PT vehicles, etc. In this context, the core indicator will show what percentage of people has been reached and to what extent they have actually gained knowledge about the new measures, and thereby, whether or not (or to what degree) such an information campaign has been successful.Relevance:The core indicator intends to assess whether the awareness of the policies and integrated measures (integrated measure package) has changed since they were implemented.Methods of measurement:Data could be collected by means of surveys. Surveys can take the form of either questionnaires or face-to-face interviews. Unit: index of the value awareness of every surveyed person. Frequency: one at the outset and one at the end of the project Accuracy: Source: survey Target group: citizens, operators, PT customers, visitors, etc. Spatial scale: city or demonstrationassessment area (to be indicated by the cities)Target and baseline:Data on individual targets to be provided by the cities. Baseline could be defined by the initial survey.CIVITAS-METEOR Evaluation Category:SocietyEvaluation Sub-category:AcceptanceImpact:AcceptanceCore Indicator:Acceptance levelDescription of the core indicator:This core indicator measures the acceptance level of the measure. Acceptance is understood as the favourable reception or approval of the measure. In the context of this core indicator, the measure is deemed to be well accepted if users (citizens, operators, PT customers, etc.) are satisfied with its existence and/or use. Context:Core indicators 13 and 14 on awareness and acceptance are closely related and should be analysed in conjunction. Those aware of a measure may or may not be satisfied with its existence and/or use.Relevance:The core indicator intends to assess satisfaction with the existence and/or use of the measure.Methods of measurement:Data will be collected by means of surveys. Surveys can take the form of either questionnaires or face-to-face interviews. Unit: index of the value satisfaction of every surveyed person. Frequency: one at the outset and one at the end of the project Accuracy: the formulation of the question and its emphasis (e.g. How satisfied are you with measure x ?) bears a strong influence over the received answers. Acceptance can be classified according to four answer options: e.g. i) satisfied with both existence and use, ii) satisfied with existence and unsatisfied with use, iii) unsatisfied with existence and satisfied with use, iv) dissatisfied with both existence and use. A classification as such allows to intercept the twofold dimension of satisfaction with one indicator. Translations must be as precise as possible. Each target group must be represented in the survey. Source: survey Target group: citizens, operators, PT customers, visitors, etc. Spatial scale: city or demonstrationassessment area (to be indicated by the cities)Target and baseline:Data on individual targets to be provided by the cities. Baseline could be defined by the initial survey.CIVITAS-METEOR Evaluation Category:SocietyEvaluation Sub-category:AccessibilityImpact:Spatial accessibilityCore Indicator:Perception of PT accessibilityDescription of the core indicator:This core indicator measures user perception of the physical accessibility of the PT network (distance to the nearest PT stop and convenience to get there). Accessibility in the context of this core indicator is limited to the spatial access to PT. User perception of accessibility should thus focus on such spatial dimension and disregard other accessibility factors such as economic (price of using PT in relation to personal income) or physical (problem-free access to a PT vehicle) accessibility. Spatial accessibility not only includes the distance to the closest PT stop, but also the convenience of getting there (through walkways, bicycle paths, access ways, etc.).Context:The core indicator provides information in the context of transport and social inclusion. The main barriers to social inclusion in transport are accessibility, affordability and travel horizons. In terms of social inclusion and accessibility, CIVITAS-METEOR core indicators concentrate on: spatial accessibility (perception of PT (spatial) accessibility economic accessibility (PT services relative cost) Relevance:The core indicator assesses the extent to which user perception of PT (spatial) accessibility changed compared to the situation prior to the implementation of the measure.Methods of measurement:Data will be collected by means of surveys. Surveys can take the form of either questionnaires or face-to-face interviews. Unit: index of the value accessibility perception of every surveyed person Frequency: one at the outset and one at the end of the project Accuracy: spatial accessibility can be classified according to 5 answer options: e.g. i) very accessible, ii) moderately accessible, iii) neutral, iv) scarcely accessible, v) inaccessible. Source of measurement: suggested sources are: Target group: PT users Spatial scale: city or demonstrationassessment area (to be indicated by the cities)Target and baseline:Data on individual targets to be provided by the cities. Baseline could be defined by the initial survey.CIVITAS-METEOR Evaluation Category:SocietyEvaluation Sub-category:AccessibilityImpact:Economic accessibilityCore Indicator:PT service relative costDescription of the core indicator:This core indicator measures the cost of PT in relation to the personal available income/budget of PT users. PT service cost is understood as the average cost of a PT pass (weekly, monthly or annual) in proportion to the average personal income (weekly, monthly or annual). Context:The core indicator provides useful information in the context of transport and social inclusion. There are many categories of social inclusion, namely physical, geographical, exclusion from facilities, time-based exclusion, fear-based exclusion, economic exclusion and spatial exclusion. In terms of social inclusion and accessibility, CIVITAS-METEOR core indicators concentrate on spatial accessibility (perception of PT (spatial) accessibility, and economic accessibility (PT services relative cost), i.e. this core indicator. PT fares are usually not directly adjusted to the personal available income. Frequent exceptions are children, students, senior citizens, welfare recipients, unemployed who can usually use PT at reduced fares in order to compensate for their anticipated lower personal income. Under the assumption of fixed fares, the lower the income of a PT user the higher the share (percentage) of the personal income that has to be spent on PT. The pricing regime in conjunction with the personal income of a potential PT user can be a major obstacle to using PT (and thereby to getting access to some factors of social well-being, such as employment, education, health care provision, etc.). Relevance:The core indicator addresses the relative cost of PT services by assessing changes in average costs of PT in proportion to average personal incomes. It also provides insights to indicator 26-27 modal split. Methods of measurement:While prices for PT need to be made available by the PT operator, data regarding the personal available income need to be collected by means of surveys. In comparison with face-to-face interviews, questionnaires offer a higher degree of anonymity which is important if, for example, data concerning personal financial information is to be revealed. Therefore, questionnaires should contain questions about personal available income. Unit: index derived from cost of PT pass divided by personal available income. Frequency: one at the outset and one at the end of the project Accuracy: Source of measurement: suggested sources are: Target group: PT users Spatial scale: city or demonstrationassessment area (to be indicated by the cities)Target and baseline:Data on individual targets to be provided by the cities. Baseline could be defined by the initial survey.CIVITAS-METEOR Evaluation Category:SocietyEvaluation Sub-category:Security Impact:SecurityCore Indicator:Perception of PT securityDescription of the core indicator:This core indicator measures the perceived security in PT vehicles as well as at and around PT stops, among PT users. Context:The perception of security is critical to the improvement of the attractiveness of PT and social inclusion in general. PT attractiveness is determined by many factors, including accessibility, flexibility, reduced dependency on other transport modes, in particular, private car use, financial and timely advantages, etc., and also security. In PT, there is concern (and even fear) among passengers for their personal security, health and general well-being. Fears for personal security can lead to reluctance or actual avoidance of using PT. This is particularly evident at specific times of the day (at night or during darkness) or in specific areas perceived as being dangerous. In general, fear of personal safety is particularly articulated by women and elderly people, and for people travelling during the evening or early morning. This report also revealed that: 44% of women and 19% of men feel unsafe waiting at the bus stop after dark 53% of women and 23% of men feel unsafe waiting on a train platform after dark It is difficult to obtain an indication of security by relying solely on quantitative measurements, since incidents that occur are often not reported. Reasons for not reporting a large portion of incidents may include a reluctance to delay the journey, a lack of confidence that the offender will be caught, the absence of someone to report to, and the belief that a report will not be taken seriously. Incidents such as abuse, harassment and intimidation are in general even less likely to be reported. Often only a limited number of security incidents are reported. However, PT passengers still (may) reveal their perception of fear for their personal security when asked by means of an anonymous questionnaire. Therefore, subjective measurements (perceptions) are necessary in order to obtain an indication of securityRelevance:The core indicator evaluates the changes in terms of security perception rather than focussing on hardly attainable quantitative data (e.g. number of attacks). A higher degree of perceived security may result in increased attractiveness of PT, while a lower number of reported incidents may not be a sufficient indication of increased security (e.g. reluctance to report an incident).Methods of measurement:Data will be collected by means of surveys. Surveys can take the form of either questionnaires or face-to-face interviews. The former offer a higher degree of anonymity which is important if, for example, information concerning security fears is to be revealed. Therefore, questionnaires should contain questions about PT security. Unit: index Frequency: one at the outset and one at the end of the project Accuracy: perception of security can be classified according to 5 answer options, two negative, two positive and one neutral (e.g. absolutely secure, partly secure, absolutely insecure, partly insecure and neither secure nor insecure). Source: survey Target group: PT users Spatial scale: city or demonstrationassessment area (to be indicated by the cities)Target and baseline:Data on individual targets to be provided by the cities. Baseline could be defined by the initial survey.CIVITAS-METEOR Evaluation Category:TransportEvaluation Sub-category:Quality of Service Impact:Service reliabilityCore Indicator:Accuracy of public transport time keepingDescription of the core indicator:This indicator accounts for the real (not the perceived) reliability of arrival times of public transport services at PT stops and stations. Concretely, it measures the number and percentage of public transport services that arrive within an acceptable interval around the planned times given by timetables. Service reliability: percentage of occurrences in which a (public transport) service arrives within a given interval around timetable times.Context:Public transport is in continuous competition with other transport modes like the private car. Most passengers still prefer to use the private mode irrespective of the distance instead of resorting to public transport or non-motorised modes. Public transport has real and perceived disadvantages compared to the car: lower comfort, (often) longer travel times, unavailability of door-to-door service, (often) lower reliability, trips subjected to interval times, safety, lack of privacy, etc.. Lack of reliability can be regarded as one of the most important barriers to using public transport. PT passengers must be able to rely on the scheduled arrival and departure times in order e.g. to catch the following connections without unpredictable waiting times. This means that the public transport service should neither depart earlier than is stated on the time table nor should it arrive later than e.g. a couple of minutes from the time given by the time table.Relevance:This indicator provides an objective measure of public transport quality. Methods of measurement:Unit: % and # of the total arrival times per year that are within a given interval around the time shown in the timetable. Frequency: seven week days per quarter until the end of the project. Accuracy: with accuracy set at a probability of 95% (s = 1,96?), the measured percentage of public transport services arriving within the time interval varies between 5%. This implies a standard error of at most 2,6% (= 5%/1,96). Together with the total number of arrival times, the minimum sample size can be calculated. A first estimation of the required sample size when using a random sample can be calculated as follows: nmin = 2500 N / [(N-1) (2,6%/1,96) + 2500]. Assuming a total of e.g. 1 million arrival times per year in the city area (all arrival times of all stops of all lines of all public transport companies) the minimum sample size is 1419. A random sample is not advisable since it will cost a lot of time ?. A more efficient option is clustering and linking the surveys to the stops ?. A second option is a two dimensional survey (with stops on one axis, and time on the second axis) with a stratification by day of the week and by quarter of the year. Source: surveys and data from public transport companies. Target group: PT users. Spatial scale: city or demonstration area (to be indicated by the cities).Target and baseline:Data on individual baseline and targets to be provided by the cities. CIVITAS-METEOR Evaluation Category:TransportEvaluation Sub-category:Quality of Service Impact:Service qualityCore Indicator:Quality of public transport servicesDescription of the core indicator:This indicator represents the user perception of the overall quality of public transport services. Context:Public transport is in continuous competition with other transport modes, with particular reference to the private car, and the general perception of the overall PT quality is one of the aspects influencing individual choices. The overall quality consists of transport services encompasses a variety of aspects - comfort, travel time, reliability, safety, privacy, etc. - but travellers usually share a holistic concept of quality, which this indicator seeks to measure. This indicator feeds directly into the formulation of PT policies aimed at attracting more users and at avoiding further shifts from public transport users to other means of transport.Relevance:This indicator is used because perception is a key figure for the measurement of PT success or failure. Methods of measurement:Unit: index of the value perception of every surveyed person. Frequency: one at the outset and one at the end of the project. Accuracy: the perception is measured on a scale based on five answer options, two negative, two positive and one neutral (absolutely dissatisfied, partly dissatisfied, absolutely satisfied, partly satisfied and neither satisfied nor dissatisfied). The answer depends very much on the formulation adopted. The question to be asked could be: e.g. "How do you rate the quality of public transport in your city?" Translations must be as precise as possible. Each target group must be represented by the survey. To indicate the minimum number of surveyed people of each target group a similar formula as for indicator 18 can be used. However one does not know beforehand to which target group a person belongs: in theory the survey should therefore proceed until the minimum number of persons for each target group is reached. Source: questionnaires. Target group: PT users Spatial scale: city or demonstrationassessment area (to be indicated by the cities). Target and baseline:Data on individual targets to be provided by the cities. Baseline could be defined by the initial survey.CIVITAS-METEOR Evaluation Category:TransportEvaluation Sub-category:Safety Impact:Transport safetyCore Indicator:Transport safetyDescription of the core indicator:This indicator is a measure of the number of fatalities and injuries caused by city traffic accidents by any means of transport. Accident: occurrence that is described as accident in traffic police reports itemised by fatalities and injuries.Context:The chance to get involved in a traffic accident provides a direct contribution to measuring the quality of life. Fatalities and injuries caused by traffic accidents are one of the most important social costs associated to transport systems. Accident rates are known to vary with the quality of road infrastructure, the technology of vehicles, the behaviour of drivers, traffic regulations, vehicle density, etc. While policies must address each and every such aspect, this indicator provides an aggregated measure of the overall policy performance with regard to safety. Relevance:This indicator is used because the number of fatalities and injuries provide an accurate view of the traffic safety situation and are normally recorded by city police departments. In the frame of METEOR tThe focus is might be on the number of fatalities and injuries caused by traffic accidents. The underlying reasons for the accident can vary considerably and are not directly addressed by this indicator.Target and baseline:Data on individual baseline and targets CIVITAS-METEOR Appendix 2: Policy Measures and Related Impact Indicators 1. Physical Accessibility (in Time and Space)Policy MeasureImpact IndicatorBenchmarking of transport service provision and planning, particularly in terms of Accessibility Planning criteria Co-ordination of transport services and timetables with service operating times, working hours regimes, school hours etc.. Proportion of key facilities and services (e.g. hospitals, schools, retail centres, recreational facilities etc.) within a given distance or walking time of public transport stops Proportion of households within a given distance or walking time of public transport stopsProvision of flexible route, on-demand public transport and special services Provision of door-to-door transport services, using advanced scheduling and booking technologyProportion of population with access to flexible route, on-demand public transportImprovements in overall network efficiency of mainstream public and specialised transport Introduction of special shuttle services to inaccessible locations Average waiting time at public transport stops Time keeping efficiency of public transport (i.e. proportion of occasions when services arrive within a given interval of scheduled times)Implementation of adaptations to both private and public transport vehicles, to improve access for people with physical and sensory disabilities, frail elderly people, people escorting young children etc.. Implementation of associated kerbside and building measures to improve access for people with physical and sensory disabilities, frail elderly people, people escorting young children etc.. Widening of eligibility criteria for various schemes, in order to provide greater access to transport services for excluded groupsNumber of journeys made by disabled people and other people who are mobility impaired Levels of satisfaction with mobility opportunities (recorded by household surveys etc.).Introduction of measures to provide access to cars (e.g. car pools, car clubs, car sharing schemes)Number of journeys made by people of particular interest (e.g. older people, students, job seekers, disabled people, people from low income households etc.) Difference between the number of trips made by people from poorer socio-economic groups, and average trip rates Average journey length of trips for various purposes (e.g. work, school etc.) made by people of particular interest2. AffordabilityPolicy MeasureImpact IndicatorIntroduction of loans, leases and discounts for cars, mopeds, bicycles etc. to eligible groups Introduction of grants for minor vehicle repair and maintenance Assistance with driving education and testing for eligible groups Assistance with vehicle taxation expenses Introduction of Pay-as-you-Drive insurance Green mortgage schemes for those wishing to live in more accessible, car-free housingCar ownership levels, by income group Proportion of income spent on mobility, among low-income groups Take-up of grants and special-rate insurance etc..Introduction of public transport concessionary fare schemes Introduction of fare concessions for specific circumstances (e.g. job interviews, hospital visiting etc.).Number of beneficiaries of concessionary fare schemes Number of trips made at reduced rates Relative cost of public transport (i.e. average cost of a weekly, monthly or annual pass, in relation to average household income of pass holder(s))Introduction of concessionary parking permits for disabled drivers Introduction of travel mobility vouchers for taxis etc.Number of beneficiaries of such schemes Level of usage of permits and vouchers etc..Integrated multi-modal ticketing regimesNumber of trips made by modes included in the scheme3. AssuranceAdoption of a whole journey approach Introduction of neighbourhood wardens, buddying schemes for disabled people etc.. Raising the profile, and increasing the presence, of the Police Implementation of other crime reduction strategies Introduction of surveillance and other security equipment (e.g. CCTV, alarms) on vehicles and at stops and interchanges Increased staffing, and levels of staff presence, on public transport networkPerception of levels of security on public transport among both users and non-users (by age and sex)Establishment and maintenance of a well-lit environment at stops and interchanges, particularly at end-legsProportion of stops and interchanges with adequate lighting Perception of levels of security on public transport among both users and non-users (by age and sex)Implementation of traffic calming measures Introduction of road safety education and similar road safety measures, targeted at deprived, Black spot areasNumber of accidents, fatalities and injuries caused by traffic accidents, including all modes of transport4. AwarenessIntroduction of personal tutoring and monitoring on travel options Provision of personalised travel information Provision of multi-lingual advice and information Introduction of customised information media to meet the needs of people with sensory disabilities, physical impairments and learning difficulties Establishment of local neighbourhood travel advice centresLevels of awareness of travel options by public transport, measured by means of surveys of both users and non-usersProvision of real-time pre-trip and on-trip informationNumber of public transport stops and terminals equipped with real-time information equipmentIntroduction of multi-media information (e.g. telephone, mobile phone, internet, printed media) on travel opportunities and fare optionsInternet usage statistics, in relation to relevant public transport information sites Number of subscribers to relevant mobile phone services  Making the connections final report on transport and social exclusion, (SEU, 26 February 2003)  HYPERLINK http://www.socialexclusionunit.gov.uk www.socialexclusionunit.gov.uk  Assessment framework and evaluation guidelines for data collection. (Deliverable D2 (Draft), METEOR Project).  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